The treaty signed in 1668 by France and the Tripple Alliance (England, Sweden, and the Dutch republic) ended the War of Devolution (1667-68), which Louis XIV of France had initiated to advance his claims to the Spanish Netherlands. By the treaty, France kept the conquered towns of Charleroi, Douai, Tournai, Oudenaarde, Lille, Armentières, and a number of other towns in Flanders. France restored to Spain Cambrai, Aire, and Saint-Omer in Flanders, and the Franche-Comté.
The treaty was no more tha a truce in which Louis XIV temporarily put aside his plans for territorial expansion. The question of the right of devolution was not settled by the treaty.
The treaty of 1748 was negotiated largely by Great Britain and France, with the other powers following their lead, ending the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-48, known in America as King George´s War).
The treaty was marked by the mutual restitution of conquest, including the fortress of Luisbourg on Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, to France, Madras in India to England, and the Barrier towns to the Dutch. The right of the Habsburg heiress Maria Theresa to the Austrian lands was guaranteed, but the Habsburgs were seriously weakened by the guarantee to Prussia, not a party to the treaty, of its conquest of Silesia. Both Britain and France were trying to win the friendship of Prussia, now clearly a significant power, for the next war. Maria Theresa gave up to Spain the duchies of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla in Italy.
The treaty confirmed the right of succession of the House of Hanover in both Great Britain and in Hanover. In the commercial struggle between England and France in the West Indies, Africa, and India, nothing was settled; the treaty was thus no basis for a lasting peace.
June 04, 2012
AISTULF (749)
King of the Lombards from 749 to 756, who led the expansion of his Germanic tribe into central Italy and the papal lands. Between 750 and 754 he added 22 cities to the Lombard kingdom.
Aistulf first moved against the Byzantines who held Ravenna as a province of the Eastern Church. In 751 his superior forces and military ability gained him easy victory over the Byzantines so that soon afterward he was able to threaten the city of Rome itself. Pope Stephen II sought the aid of the FRankish king Pepin III, who succesfully besieged Aistulf at Pavia early in 755. The conquered Lombard king promised to restore Ravenna to the Byzantine emperor and to respect the Roman territories.
After the departure of Pepin from Italy, however, the Lombard dukes persuaded Aistulf to lay siege on Rome (January-April 756). Once again Pepin returned to defeat Aistulf at Pavia (June 756). The truce imposed by Pepin required Aistulf to hand over his captured Byzantine provinces to the papacy. After the departure of Pepin, the Lombards protested this settlement; and yet a third war would probably have ensued if Aistulf had not died in a hunting accident.
Aistulf first moved against the Byzantines who held Ravenna as a province of the Eastern Church. In 751 his superior forces and military ability gained him easy victory over the Byzantines so that soon afterward he was able to threaten the city of Rome itself. Pope Stephen II sought the aid of the FRankish king Pepin III, who succesfully besieged Aistulf at Pavia early in 755. The conquered Lombard king promised to restore Ravenna to the Byzantine emperor and to respect the Roman territories.
After the departure of Pepin from Italy, however, the Lombard dukes persuaded Aistulf to lay siege on Rome (January-April 756). Once again Pepin returned to defeat Aistulf at Pavia (June 756). The truce imposed by Pepin required Aistulf to hand over his captured Byzantine provinces to the papacy. After the departure of Pepin, the Lombards protested this settlement; and yet a third war would probably have ensued if Aistulf had not died in a hunting accident.
PIERRE D´AILLY (1417)
Theologian, cardinal, and advocate of church reform whose chief aim was to heal the Great Schism of the Western Church (1378-1417).
He studied at the College of Navarre of the University of Paris, where he became doctor of theology (1380). It was at that time that d´Ailly began to take the position that a general council was superior to the pope, whom it might depose if necessary. In 1381 he suggested convoking a general council in a effort to end the schism.
D´Ailly became master of the College of Navarre in 1384 and later was made chancellor of the university and the King´s confessor and almoner (1389). He displeased the university, however, by supporting the antipope Benedict XIII, who appointed him bishop of Le Puy (1395) and then bishop of Cambrai (1397). He gradually broke with Benedict, who, with the Roman pope Boniface IX, refused to abdicate to heal the schism. D´Ailly then returned to his old conciliar doctrine, which steadily became more extreme.
He played a prominent part in the Council of Pisa (1409), which declared Benedict and the new Roman pope Gregory XII deposed and elected a third, the conciliar pope Alexander V, who was succeeded the following year by John XXIII. John made d´Ailly a cardinal (1411), bishop of Orange, and his legate to Germany (1413). But since the schism persisted, there being now three popes instead of two, d´Ailly favoured calling a new general council, which was convened at Constance (1414-18). He was influential in the decisions of Constance, which called for the abdication of John XXIII, condemned the Hussites (heretical followers of the Bohemian Reformer Jan Hus), supported conciliarism, and accepted a compromise on the roles of the council and the cardinals in order to elect a new pope, Martin V (November 1417).
The possibility that d´Ailly might be elected pope was ruled out by a hostile coalition of Italians, Germans, and English. He retired to Avignon, where he was legate for Martin.
D´Ailly was the author of several influential works. Although many of his views on the constitution of the church were later rejected as heretical, particularly inasmuch as they were echoed by Protestant Reformers, they were adopted in his time as the only apparent way of ending the Great Schism. Interested inn science, he advocated calendar reform (later effected by Pope Gregory XII) and wrote his Image of the World, which supported the idea that the East Indies could be reached by sailing west.
He studied at the College of Navarre of the University of Paris, where he became doctor of theology (1380). It was at that time that d´Ailly began to take the position that a general council was superior to the pope, whom it might depose if necessary. In 1381 he suggested convoking a general council in a effort to end the schism.
D´Ailly became master of the College of Navarre in 1384 and later was made chancellor of the university and the King´s confessor and almoner (1389). He displeased the university, however, by supporting the antipope Benedict XIII, who appointed him bishop of Le Puy (1395) and then bishop of Cambrai (1397). He gradually broke with Benedict, who, with the Roman pope Boniface IX, refused to abdicate to heal the schism. D´Ailly then returned to his old conciliar doctrine, which steadily became more extreme.
He played a prominent part in the Council of Pisa (1409), which declared Benedict and the new Roman pope Gregory XII deposed and elected a third, the conciliar pope Alexander V, who was succeeded the following year by John XXIII. John made d´Ailly a cardinal (1411), bishop of Orange, and his legate to Germany (1413). But since the schism persisted, there being now three popes instead of two, d´Ailly favoured calling a new general council, which was convened at Constance (1414-18). He was influential in the decisions of Constance, which called for the abdication of John XXIII, condemned the Hussites (heretical followers of the Bohemian Reformer Jan Hus), supported conciliarism, and accepted a compromise on the roles of the council and the cardinals in order to elect a new pope, Martin V (November 1417).
The possibility that d´Ailly might be elected pope was ruled out by a hostile coalition of Italians, Germans, and English. He retired to Avignon, where he was legate for Martin.
D´Ailly was the author of several influential works. Although many of his views on the constitution of the church were later rejected as heretical, particularly inasmuch as they were echoed by Protestant Reformers, they were adopted in his time as the only apparent way of ending the Great Schism. Interested inn science, he advocated calendar reform (later effected by Pope Gregory XII) and wrote his Image of the World, which supported the idea that the East Indies could be reached by sailing west.
THE MAHDI, THE LAST IMAM (874)
SHAYKH AHMAD was founder of the heterodox Shii Muslim Shaykh sect of Iran.
After spending his early years studying the Islamic religion and travelling widely in Persia, in the Turkish provinces of Basra, Baghdad, and Mosul, and in Arabia, Shaykh Ahmad in 1808 settled in Yazd, Persia, where he taught religion. His interpretation of the Shiah faith (one of the two major branches of Islam) soon attracted many followers. Although he was well received by Fath Ali Shah, the reigning monarch in Theran, Shaykh Ahmad´s teachings aroused controversy among the ortodox religious leaders of the day. A central idea of Shii Islam is that the greater imam, the leader of Islam, is descended from the male offspring of Ali (the Prophet Muhammad´s son-in-law) and Fatima (the Prophet´s daughter) and is divinely appointed and divinely inspired.
Affter 874 the spiritual functions of the imam were performed by wakils, or agents, who were in contact with the mahdi, the last imam and a mesianic deliverer. But following the death of Ali ibn Muhammad as-Samarri in 940, this direct contact between the community and the mahdi ceased. The Shiis believed that some day prior to the apocalyptic end of the world, the mahdi would establish a reign of justice.
This apocalyptic belief was strengthened by the prevailing social and economic conditions of Persia. At the beginning of the 19th century the country was recovering from the hardships of a cruel civil war that had preceded the establishment of the Qajar dynasty. The precarious temporal existence of the faithful led to a strong upsurge in millennialist anticipation of the coming of the mahdi.
Shaylh Ahmad taught that at all times there must be direct human contact between the mahdi and the community and probably believed himself to be the medium of that contact. The doctrine brought him into conflict with the orthodox Shii theologians of Basra, Baghdad, and Mosul, who regarded themselves as the spiritual caretakers of the community during the mahdi´s absence.
The Shaykh´s final breach with the established and orthodox Shii theologians occurred in 1824, when he was formally denounced as an infidel. He was accused of having denied the physical resurrection of the Prophet Muhammad and of having taught, instead, that the ascension of the Prophet was purely spiritual. The charge that he taught the divinity of Ali remained unproved. Following his excommunication the Shaykh left the aerea and died during a pilgrimage to Mecca.
He was succeeded as the leader of the Shaykhi sect by Sayyid Kazim Rashti (died 1843).
After spending his early years studying the Islamic religion and travelling widely in Persia, in the Turkish provinces of Basra, Baghdad, and Mosul, and in Arabia, Shaykh Ahmad in 1808 settled in Yazd, Persia, where he taught religion. His interpretation of the Shiah faith (one of the two major branches of Islam) soon attracted many followers. Although he was well received by Fath Ali Shah, the reigning monarch in Theran, Shaykh Ahmad´s teachings aroused controversy among the ortodox religious leaders of the day. A central idea of Shii Islam is that the greater imam, the leader of Islam, is descended from the male offspring of Ali (the Prophet Muhammad´s son-in-law) and Fatima (the Prophet´s daughter) and is divinely appointed and divinely inspired.
Affter 874 the spiritual functions of the imam were performed by wakils, or agents, who were in contact with the mahdi, the last imam and a mesianic deliverer. But following the death of Ali ibn Muhammad as-Samarri in 940, this direct contact between the community and the mahdi ceased. The Shiis believed that some day prior to the apocalyptic end of the world, the mahdi would establish a reign of justice.
This apocalyptic belief was strengthened by the prevailing social and economic conditions of Persia. At the beginning of the 19th century the country was recovering from the hardships of a cruel civil war that had preceded the establishment of the Qajar dynasty. The precarious temporal existence of the faithful led to a strong upsurge in millennialist anticipation of the coming of the mahdi.
Shaylh Ahmad taught that at all times there must be direct human contact between the mahdi and the community and probably believed himself to be the medium of that contact. The doctrine brought him into conflict with the orthodox Shii theologians of Basra, Baghdad, and Mosul, who regarded themselves as the spiritual caretakers of the community during the mahdi´s absence.
The Shaykh´s final breach with the established and orthodox Shii theologians occurred in 1824, when he was formally denounced as an infidel. He was accused of having denied the physical resurrection of the Prophet Muhammad and of having taught, instead, that the ascension of the Prophet was purely spiritual. The charge that he taught the divinity of Ali remained unproved. Following his excommunication the Shaykh left the aerea and died during a pilgrimage to Mecca.
He was succeeded as the leader of the Shaykhi sect by Sayyid Kazim Rashti (died 1843).
JEAN AICARD (1874)
Poet, novelist, and dramatist best known for his poems of the Provence region.
As a young man, he studied law for three years, abandoning it in the end to devote himself to poetry and literature. His fist boook of poetry, Jeunes Croyances or Beliefs of a Youth (1867) showed the influence of the Romantic poet Alphonse de Lamartine and was well received upon its appearance.
He went to Paris after the Franco-German War and published Les Rebellions et les apaisements or Rebellions and Reassurances (1871). Poèmes de Provence, a sensitive evocation of the Provençal scene, followed in 1874; two years later La Chanson de l´enfant or Child´s Song was published- both volumes receiving awards from the Académie Française, as did his later poem "Lamartine".
The most succesful of his 14 plays was Le Père Lebonnard or Father Lebonnard, first performed in 1889. Most of his novels, the best of which is Maurin des maures or Maurin of the Moors (1908), are also based on Provençal life.
He became a member of the Académie Française in 1909.
As a young man, he studied law for three years, abandoning it in the end to devote himself to poetry and literature. His fist boook of poetry, Jeunes Croyances or Beliefs of a Youth (1867) showed the influence of the Romantic poet Alphonse de Lamartine and was well received upon its appearance.
He went to Paris after the Franco-German War and published Les Rebellions et les apaisements or Rebellions and Reassurances (1871). Poèmes de Provence, a sensitive evocation of the Provençal scene, followed in 1874; two years later La Chanson de l´enfant or Child´s Song was published- both volumes receiving awards from the Académie Française, as did his later poem "Lamartine".
The most succesful of his 14 plays was Le Père Lebonnard or Father Lebonnard, first performed in 1889. Most of his novels, the best of which is Maurin des maures or Maurin of the Moors (1908), are also based on Provençal life.
He became a member of the Académie Française in 1909.
AHMET PASA BURSALI (1474)
One of the most important figures in 15th-century Turkish literature.
Born into a prominent family of sayyids (Muslims who claim lineal descent from the Prophet), Ahmet Pasa received a classical Islamic education and was appointed as a teacher in the madrasah or religious college named after the Ottoman sultan Murat II (1421-51) in the city of Bursa. In 1451 he took the important post of qadi or judge of the city of Edirne. With the accession of Sultan Mehmet II (1451-81), he became qadi asker or military judge and tutor to the Sultan and took part in the conquest of Constantinople in 1453. After falling out of favour with the Sultan, he spent many years in virtual exile in Bursa and then as governor of a number of Ottoman cities. With the accession of Sultan Bayezid (1481-1512), however, he continued his career in government service until his death in 1496/97.
Principally a panegyrist, Ahmet Pasa wrote mainly qasidahs or odes and ghazals or lyrics and is considered the first master of classical poetry in Ottoman literature. Laying the foundation for Turkish literary style and language, he wrote with a grace and refinement that was much appreciated by his contemporaries. The melodius poems in his Divan or Collected Poems had a strong influence on later Ottoman classical poets, securing for him an important place in Turkish literary history.
Born into a prominent family of sayyids (Muslims who claim lineal descent from the Prophet), Ahmet Pasa received a classical Islamic education and was appointed as a teacher in the madrasah or religious college named after the Ottoman sultan Murat II (1421-51) in the city of Bursa. In 1451 he took the important post of qadi or judge of the city of Edirne. With the accession of Sultan Mehmet II (1451-81), he became qadi asker or military judge and tutor to the Sultan and took part in the conquest of Constantinople in 1453. After falling out of favour with the Sultan, he spent many years in virtual exile in Bursa and then as governor of a number of Ottoman cities. With the accession of Sultan Bayezid (1481-1512), however, he continued his career in government service until his death in 1496/97.
Principally a panegyrist, Ahmet Pasa wrote mainly qasidahs or odes and ghazals or lyrics and is considered the first master of classical poetry in Ottoman literature. Laying the foundation for Turkish literary style and language, he wrote with a grace and refinement that was much appreciated by his contemporaries. The melodius poems in his Divan or Collected Poems had a strong influence on later Ottoman classical poets, securing for him an important place in Turkish literary history.
June 03, 2012
AGRI DECUMATES IN AD 74
Name given by the ancient Roman historian Tacitus to the Black Forest and adjoining areas of southwestern Germany between the Rhine, Danube, and Main Rivers; the name may imply earlier occupation by a tribe with ten cantons.
The Romans under the Flavian emperors began annexing the area in AD 74 to secure better communications between the Rhine and Danube armies.
According to Tacitus, the territory was previosly inhabited by the Helvetti; later, vagabond Gauls settled there. The Romans were displaced from the Agri Decumates by the Alemanni AD 260.
The Romans under the Flavian emperors began annexing the area in AD 74 to secure better communications between the Rhine and Danube armies.
According to Tacitus, the territory was previosly inhabited by the Helvetti; later, vagabond Gauls settled there. The Romans were displaced from the Agri Decumates by the Alemanni AD 260.
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